Presumption of Innocence Essay Example for Free

Presumption of Innocence Essay In a court of law everyone is presumed innocent until proven guilty by a judge and/or a jury consisting of their peers. This is the basis of the presumption of innocence clause. There are many cases that we can look at in order to provide a detailed explaination to this clause. The one the we will review in this paper is the Casey Anthony case. This is a perfect case to review for this cause. The Presumption of Innocence clause involves the fifth and fourteenth ammendments which will be further explained. When we are dealing with people or are thought to be guilty of any crime we need to remember this clause and give them the benefit of the doubt that they actually did not commit the crime until we can prove that they actually did. This paper will discuss all of these things and more to provide people with a better understanding of the Presumption of Innocence clause. Presumption of innocence is defined as â€Å"the government always has the burden to justify its use of power even against people who turn out to be guilty.† (Samaha,p481) This basically means that it is the prosecutions responsibility to present evidence and to convince a jury that a criminal is guilty of the crime in question. A suspect in any crime should be considered innocent until proven guilty in a court of law. When a person is arrested we automatically assume that they are guilty of whatever crime they have committed but have you ever seen someone get arrested and be released after their trial was over because a jury found them not guilty? I believe everyone has witnessed this occurance. We may not like to discuss it but they Casey Anthony case is a big case that deals with this. Casey Anthony  was arrested and tried for the murder of her daughter Caylee Anthony in 2008. Evidence used to detain Anthony included a nine inch piece of hair obtained from the trunk of Anthony’s car, a prestigious scientist found an abundant level of chloroform in the trunk of Anthony’s car, The piece of hair found in the trunk was proven to be that of Caylee Anthony as well as proven to be that of a postmorteum Caylee, and a rare kind of duct tape that was found on Caylee’s body was also found within the Anthony family garage. There was so much evidence proving her guilt but a jury found her not guilty due to lack of hard evidence. The jurors for this case wanted more evidence against her that they did not receive from the prosecution, in which is the reasoning behind finding her not guilty. Personally I think she did kill her daughter or had some part in the killing. Again that is my personal opinion but some people think she is definitely innocent. There is never a sure way of knowing whether or not that person is guilty unless there is hard evidence to prove it or the criminal was caught in the act and everything has to be right on point. I do not think that there is ever going to be a sure way to prove a person guilty upon their arrest because in order to do so we would have to honestly have a group of peers look upon any given case and say that the person is definitely guilty. Again that will never happen! The only crimes that I believe is an absolute guilty is driving while intoxicated or knowingly driving with a suspended or revoked license. There is really no way in being innocent when you are caught for these crimes. All in all just about everyone that gets arrested should be considered innocent until proven guilty in a court of law. References Samaha, J. , 2011, Criminal Law (Tenth Edition), Wadsworth Cengage Learning Summary of Casey Anthony Murder Trial, 2011, The Caylee Daily

Alzheimers Disease Essay -- Alzheimers Disease Essays

Memory loss, like old age is a condition which mankind has always reluctantly recognized and always – with resignation. Memory loses are sometimes trivial and meaningless and go unrecognized. However, when these loses are so great that a person does not know who or where they are the concerns are quite grave. Although it is realize that Alzheimer's disease destroys the brain memory function, many do not realize precisely how the memory is destroyed once one is aware of the process, it becomes faster to work forward to alleviate the destruction. "Without memory there is no knowledge to recreate or reproduce past perceptions, emotions, thoughts and actions that are so vital to live a full and functioning life. Memory is the key that unlocks doors that keep us functioning, not only mentally but physically (Corrick 32)." "Memory loss is not a sign of decay (Freedman 10)." As we get older, there is some mild impairment in our recollection of recent events, such as forgetting why one went into a room or misplacing a person's eye glasses, which even young are guilty of doing. As reported by Larry Squire, "forgetting is quite normal and usually develops in the third decade of life, and by one estimate 85 percent of the healthy elderly – those over 65—suffer some memory impairment (59)." According to Dr. Seligmann, "forgetting is the process through which information in memory becomes inaccessible, either because it is stored but is not at that time retrievable (51)." This is one of the most important factors in forgetting. Memory loss is rapid at first and then gradually levels off. There are many types of "dismembering" enemies that hamper ones recall and retrieval system. "Forgetting may be increased by interference from proactive inhibition, that is material learned beforehand, like trying to remember a soup recipe (51)." In remembering stories or events there is a tendency for distortions to occur. Cutler explains that studies made by Elizabeth Loftus reveal, "what you learn today may actually distort your memory of what happened to you yesterday. . . (62)." People tend to remember the events that they regard as the most important. They attempt to reconstruct the event, usually what knowledge they have, with the result being what would have been expected rather than what actually happened. Dr. Siegfried ... ...sease of the brain (Parke- Davis 6)." "Deficiency of cortical acetylcholine is believed to account for clinical manifestation of mild to moderate dementia (Cognex 3)." Cognex is the only drug of choice presently used for treatment of Alzheimer's patients. "Cognex presumably acts by elevating acetylcholine concentration in cerebral cortex by slowing the degradation which is released by enact chelinergic neurons (Cognex 3)." Approximately "5,600 patients were on clinical trails about 17% were improved with memories. . ." and " 40% stayed the same no change and about 20% had been "withdrawn" with adverse reaction (Cognex 4)." In conclusion, when is memory loss, whether it is great or small, it takes away the ability to recreate or reproduce to some extent our emotions, past experiences, thoughts and actions that we take for granted. It gives us far more then we give it. The mind needs knowledge to keep us functioning and in return will perform amazing feats for us. Although the cause of Alzheimer's diseases unknown care, research is ongoing, worldwide. "There is no evidence that Cognex alters the course of the underlying demeaning process (Cognex 3)." Alzheimers Disease Essay -- Alzheimer's Disease Essays Memory loss, like old age is a condition which mankind has always reluctantly recognized and always – with resignation. Memory loses are sometimes trivial and meaningless and go unrecognized. However, when these loses are so great that a person does not know who or where they are the concerns are quite grave. Although it is realize that Alzheimer's disease destroys the brain memory function, many do not realize precisely how the memory is destroyed once one is aware of the process, it becomes faster to work forward to alleviate the destruction. "Without memory there is no knowledge to recreate or reproduce past perceptions, emotions, thoughts and actions that are so vital to live a full and functioning life. Memory is the key that unlocks doors that keep us functioning, not only mentally but physically (Corrick 32)." "Memory loss is not a sign of decay (Freedman 10)." As we get older, there is some mild impairment in our recollection of recent events, such as forgetting why one went into a room or misplacing a person's eye glasses, which even young are guilty of doing. As reported by Larry Squire, "forgetting is quite normal and usually develops in the third decade of life, and by one estimate 85 percent of the healthy elderly – those over 65—suffer some memory impairment (59)." According to Dr. Seligmann, "forgetting is the process through which information in memory becomes inaccessible, either because it is stored but is not at that time retrievable (51)." This is one of the most important factors in forgetting. Memory loss is rapid at first and then gradually levels off. There are many types of "dismembering" enemies that hamper ones recall and retrieval system. "Forgetting may be increased by interference from proactive inhibition, that is material learned beforehand, like trying to remember a soup recipe (51)." In remembering stories or events there is a tendency for distortions to occur. Cutler explains that studies made by Elizabeth Loftus reveal, "what you learn today may actually distort your memory of what happened to you yesterday. . . (62)." People tend to remember the events that they regard as the most important. They attempt to reconstruct the event, usually what knowledge they have, with the result being what would have been expected rather than what actually happened. Dr. Siegfried ... ...sease of the brain (Parke- Davis 6)." "Deficiency of cortical acetylcholine is believed to account for clinical manifestation of mild to moderate dementia (Cognex 3)." Cognex is the only drug of choice presently used for treatment of Alzheimer's patients. "Cognex presumably acts by elevating acetylcholine concentration in cerebral cortex by slowing the degradation which is released by enact chelinergic neurons (Cognex 3)." Approximately "5,600 patients were on clinical trails about 17% were improved with memories. . ." and " 40% stayed the same no change and about 20% had been "withdrawn" with adverse reaction (Cognex 4)." In conclusion, when is memory loss, whether it is great or small, it takes away the ability to recreate or reproduce to some extent our emotions, past experiences, thoughts and actions that we take for granted. It gives us far more then we give it. The mind needs knowledge to keep us functioning and in return will perform amazing feats for us. Although the cause of Alzheimer's diseases unknown care, research is ongoing, worldwide. "There is no evidence that Cognex alters the course of the underlying demeaning process (Cognex 3)."

Which learning style the teachers should use to teach language

Knowing pupils manner is really of import. That because it helps pupils to be active scholars. This survey purpose is to hold a deep expression in pupils ‘ manner in ADU and which manner they prefer much. Besides, which larning manner the instructors should utilize to learn linguistic communication and is at that place a different between the three manners of larning. Study was conducted in 20 respondents from Abu Dhabi University. The perusing of consequences indicated that pupils prefer to utilize ocular manner much more than others manner.IntroductionLearners have different manners, attitudes, behaviours, ideas, and positions. Everyone acts harmonizing to his ain character. Besides, every scholar has his ain manner to stand for or derive information. There are three manners that scholars use to derive information ; they are ocular, audile and tactile. Learners have different ways to derive information, some scholars prefer to analyze entirely and others prefer to analyze in groups. Otherwise, instructors need to be familiar with pupils ‘ manners because cognizing pupils ‘ manners will do occupation of the instructor more comfy. Besides, it will raise the pupils ‘ public presentation inside the category room.Statement of jobWhich manner is the best 1 for ADU pupils?Statement of intentDetermine pupils ‘ manners and happen suited ways to do pupils derive information easy and profit from their teachers.2Leaning manners definitionEveryone has his ain manner to show or get informations. Learning manners can be defined as several attacks or ways of acquisition. Besides, it can be described as an single behaviour, activities and qualities that appear on the scholar character when procedure of acquisition is happening. Actually, it is a sort of techniques that enables the scholar to larn in a best manner. ( Wikipedi a, 2009 ) Peoples have different manners of thought and different ways of stand foring information. The word manner is used in linguistic communication to depict differences between people. Style can be described as single qualities, activities and behaviour that appear on the scholar character during larning procedure. Style has a major influence in different parts on human character such as personality, behaviour, knowledge, perceptual experience, larning and motive. I think that the scholar himself can determine his ain manner. For illustration, if the scholar has a weak personality ; he will non pull off to show his thoughts and take part with the other scholars. However, if the scholar has a strong personality ; he will be successful in his acquisition trip. Students with strong personality show high attending to linguistic communication. ( Robert, 2000 ) When I move to the college, I see different sorts of pupils ; they are from India, Egypt, Sudan, Syria, Oman etc. Each one has his ain manners ; some of them like to analyze in groups and other like to analyze entirely. Otherwise ; larning manners can be different from individual to individual.Types of acquisition mannersIn this life, there are a batch of differences ; people have different attitudes, behaviour, intelligence and different manners. In larning, we have different types of acquisition manners. There are three types of acquisition manners, ocular, audile, and tactile or kinaesthetic.Ocular mannerLearners who use this sort of manner ; they normally learn information or information through seeing things. They prefer teacher who uses the chalkboard or the projector to3present the chief points or the one who gives an lineation about the talk. Besides, they prefer to analyze entirely by themselves in a quite room. These scholars frequently see information in their heads when they are seeking to retrieve something. Besides, they need to see the organic structure linguistic communication of the instructor and follow facial looks. In add-on, they prefer to put at the forepart of the category and avoid obstructors ( e.g. pupils head ) . Al thought, these scholars tend to utilize images more and depend on ocular show such as diagrams, picture, chart, and press release. Besides, these scholars use their ain imaginativeness to show their feeling like picture and other humanistic disciplines. In add-on, to be able to get information ; they draw symbols and images on cards to remember information when they need it. Besides, they use colour pens to foreground chief thoughts. Furthermore, ocular scholars use diagrams and graphs to ease callback. ( Suzanne, 2000 )Auditory mannerLearners who use this type of manner ; they normally depe nd on hearing to get information. They learn best through listening to others, treatment, and verbal talks. Auditory scholars realize or gain significance of address through listening to tone of voice, pitch and velocity of the talker. Sometimes written information may hold small intending if they hear it. Besides, these scholars may get or profit from reading texts aloud and utilizing tape recording equipment. In add-on, audile scholars prefer to take part and interact with other scholars ; they normally pay more attending for the talker whether the instructor or a spouse. When analyzing, seek to happen for yourself an stray room where you wo n't trouble oneselfing anyone and read your notes or text edition aloud. Besides, you can utilize tape recording equipment to enter your talks. Al though, holding talks on a tape record enable you to fix for tests in a nice and easy manner. ( Shannon, 2006-2010 )Tactile or kinaesthetic mannerTactile scholars learn information or information if they are physically engaged. These scholars learn best by following the teacher motion inside the schoolroom. Tactile learners seem more active to follow the instructor organic structure linguistic communication. Besides, these scholars seem more active in they classroom, they set at the forepart seats and they take note4without taking attention to grammatical errors. When analyzing, set at the forepart seats and take notes without taking attention of grammatical errors or composing uncomplete sentences. Besides you can pull images or charts to assist you retrieve information. ( corina,1999-2010 )Taxonomy of acquisition mannersLearners use different ways to larn about any topic. Harmonizing to several psychologists, there are seven specific types of acquisition manners. In instruction, instructors should find type of scholars that they have and select the best manner which suite their scholars demands. Linguistic: in this type, the scholars prefer to read, compose and state narratives. They show a high degree of memorising topographic points, informations, and names, and are ever surprising you in their ways of happening the information. Besides, they have a strong ability to remember information you have told them, word by word. These pupils learn best through visual perception, stating and hearing. Otherwise teacher should courage them to be more originative by assisting them to compose down words, phrases and promoting them to portion their thoughts with other spouses. ( Stacy, 2001 ) Logical: scholars are obsessed of mathematical jobs. They like to work out jobs particularly if they are related to math. These pupils develop logical thought. Their chief issues are how things work, why things relate to one another and why things are here. This type of pupils learn best by analysing, differentiate and happening relationships between things. ( Stacy, 2001 ) Teacher should courage and assist them by demoing them how to happen relationships between things. For illustration, what is the consequence of pollution? Some pupils may happen that it has a negative consequence on human being wellness and other may state it has a negative consequence on animate beings etc. By demoing them how to happen relationships between things ; they will catch linguistic communication and they will be originative. Spatial: these are the imaginers. They spend their clip in woolgathering, watching others and remaining off from existent life. This type of pupils likes to work with colourss, images and usage head oculus.5If you feel that they are less motivated, you can inquire them to pull a image and so inquire them to speak about it. You will recognize that they are more take parting with you, because image for them is everything. Teacher should courage their artistic abilities and allows them to show their feels, ideas, and thoughts by demoing them how to make that. ( Stacy, 2001 ) Musical: if you notice that you have a pupil, who likes to sing all the clip, so this pupil is a musical scholar. This type of scholar love everything relates to music, they prefer to hear music while walking, analyzing and eating etc†¦ Besides, this type of scholars is good in detecting pitches, beat, and inside informations. ( Stacy, 2001 ) As I said before, they like to larn best through beat so teacher should accommodate his method of learning with their manner. For illustration, while reading any transition, he can set a vocal for them. This type of pupils needs the instructor to utilize techniques which are related to music. For illustration, to trip their memories, he can inquire them to compose a vocal about the lesson. However, music should non be devouring clip talk or that will convey bad effects. Bodily: this type of scholars depends on organic structure to catch the linguistic communication. They like to walk around the category, analyze everything and they use body linguistic communication to show their thoughts, ideas and feelings. They prefer to play any sort of athletics instead than sit down and read a book. ( Stacy, 2001 ) Teacher should maintain them active all the clip by playing with them word games, have spelling lesson during football. Besides, he can take them to nature to larn about geographics. Interpersonal: we can depict these scholars as a group of custodies that work together to finish a given undertaking. These scholars have ability to run in any societal state of affairs. They are more tended to hold a batch of friends and conveying them place. Besides, they prefer to work in group inside the category room and have unlimited patient for the others. ( Stacy, 2001 ) Teachers should courage their love for people and assist them to be with different types of people. However, parents should follow them carefully because they may6face people that have different civilizations, attitudes, behaviours and thoughts. And conflict civilizations may do some jobs for these scholars. Intrapersonal: are those pupils who prefer to work entirely and like rather topographic points to analyze in. They prefer to work on their ain involvement and normally they have a deeper apprehension for themselves. Besides, intrapersonal scholars tend to remain a manner from groups and wish do their best entirely. Teachers should follow them and support because they may perpetrate errors in any clip. ( Stacy, 2001 )Kolb acquisition mannerKolb divided procedure of tilting into four stairss ; the first procedure is cyclical procedure. It begins with concrete experience ; the whole procedure is based on experience. The 2nd measure is brooding observation, seeing experience from different positions. The 3rd measure is abstract conceptualisation, planing generalisations that submergence observations into sound theories. The concluding 1 is active experimentation where scholar uses these generalisations as theories to prove new state of affairss. Kolb believes that larning procedure is ba sed through experiment. He says that the whole acquisition procedure consist of four phases: experiencing, reflecting, believing and moving. The scholar receives information and attempts to prove every individual portion. Then, think about the information and eventually seek to move on the information. ( scott,2000 )Literature reappraisalSeveral surveies have been conducted on groups of kids. These kids groups include Native American, Alaskan Eskimo and Mexican- American kids. Surveies showed that certain groups have strong ocular perceptual experience in comparing to auditory, tactile or kinaesthetic manners. ( Swanson, 1995 ) Another survey was conducted on kids from different civilizations to find their acquisition manners ; these kids are from African- American, Mexican- American and Greek- American. Study showed that Grecian American kids like to utilize audile manner and both African American and Mexican- American kids like to utilize haptic manner. ( Swanson, 1995 )7Methodology:In this undertaking I made questionnaire, in order to cognize sentiments ‘ of pupils and about my inquiries or jobs. Then, I distributed those inquiries on 20 pupils from Abu Dhabi University ; they are taking different classs such as Muslim civilization, professional moralss and others. Their ages are from 18 to twenty six. After that, I collected them and started to analyse them. Finally, I compare between informations which I found in articles and informations in inquiries.Finding consequencesAs you know my research negotiations about the three types of acquisition manners which are ocular, audile and haptic. I am certain that now you are known about these three types and what are the significances of these types. Some pupils have their ain manners to larn. They may concentrate on ocular instead than auditory which I observed on my study. Other pupils have abilities to larn by audile manner instead than ocular manner when they learn. Some pupils get these types and they use ocular, audile and haptic to larn better. They normally like to alter their manners of larning. They use all these three types to larn better and do learning procedure more utile and apprehensible. I distributed study for 15 male and 5 female pupils in ADU. This study includes 15 inquiries that let me cognize their acquisition manners. These inquiries have four picks and each pupils select one or two. Before I collected their replies to analysis, I noticed that most of pupils in ADU use ocular manners of acquisition. This chart clarifies the consequence that I collected from my study8From this chart, you can see that larning manners of pupils at ADU divide into three types of larning manners as followers: Ocular manner: Auditory manner: Haptic manner: First, most of pupils at ADU use ocular manners of larning. I collected 181 points that 16 pupils selected from the different picks. In ocular manner, when pupils spell the word, they try to see it. When they talk, they dislike listening for long clip because they feel board. So they like to see images, waies, postings, diagrams etc to cognize thoughts, topographic points, etc. Besides, when they meet person once more, they merely retrieve faces instead than names. I found most of pupils at ADU like to larn through visual perception, pulling, utilizing graphs, and reading written direction that came with the plan. In add-on, they like to larn from books that has real-life narratives, experiences and illustrations. Besides, these pupils like to seek in web sites that have interesting written descriptions, lists, accounts, design and ocular characteristics. When they do something new at work, they like to see presentations, slides, or postings. Second, some pupils use audile manner to larn at ADU. I collected 86 points that 4 pupils selected. These pupils like to hold feedback from person who talks it through with them if they have finished a competition or trial and would wish some feedback. Besides, they would speak about, or set up a talk for them about for illustration,9Parkss or wildlife militias, when a group of tourers want to larn about the Parkss in their countries. In add-on, if the pupils want to larn a new plan, accomplishment or game on a computing machine, they would speak with people who know about the plan. These pupils prefer a instructor or a presenter who uses inquiry and reply, talk, group treatment, or guest talkers. Besides, if they are utilizing a book, Cadmium or web site to larn how to take exposures with your new digital camera, they would wish to hold a opportunity to inquire inquiries and speak about the camera and its characteristics. In add-on, they like web sites that have audio channels where I can hear music, wireless plans or interviews. When pupils do something new, they prefer verbal instructions or speaking about it with person else. Third, the survey shows that most pupils do non utilize haptic manner to larn at ADU. I did non roll up any point for this manner ; this shows that pupils do non like to seek or touch things that would assist them to larn. These pupils do non like to utilize the controls or keyboard when they want to larn a new plan, accomplishment or game on a computing machine. Besides, if they find person who want to travel to airport, town centre or railroad station ; they do non wish to travel with him. In add-on, if they have a job with their articulatio genus ; they would non prefer that the physician usage a fictile theoretical account of a articulatio genus to demo what was incorrect. In add-on, the ground of disfavor tactile manner is non known. There are several grounds that show why pupils do non like haptic manner in ADU ; one of the chief grounds is their ages. Adults do non like to play or touch things because they show a polite character. Besides, clip can deter pupils to utilize tactile ; as we know grownups do non hold clip for these little issues. Table of the consequences:Types of acquisition manners.ocularAuditoryTactileNumber of pupils16 4 0Percentage84.2 % 15.8 % 0 % 10DiscussionThe pervious surveies showed that pupils prefer to utilize ocular manner. Otherwise, do we hold to concentrate on ocular manner more? Each manner has its ain features ; we can non divide the three manners. Other surveies showed that larning manners are different from one civilization to another. Otherwise, these differences are natural but we can give some tips to raise pupils ‘ public presentation. I think we have to do a balance between the three manners. We should do the pupils love to utilize the other two manners by demoing them tips and bids.DecisionLearning manner is the manner of thought of a individual to derive information from environing. Each scholar has its ain manner to derive information. There are three types of larning manner ocular, audile and haptic. In ocular acquisition manner a scholar learns through sing the graph, notes, diagram, and image to derive information. In audile learning manner a scholar learns through listening to other people. Las t in haptic larning manner a scholar learns through touching things. The survey shows that most of the scholars use ocular acquisition manner to derive information, nevertheless we can non divide the other two acquisition manners because the three acquisition manners are related to each other. In decision, I would wish to state that all the three acquisition manner are of import for larning procedure, instructor or teacher should cognize every single scholar manner.RecommendationsTeachersProvide online study for the pupils, in order to cognize pupils larning manners Design activities to promote the usage of auditory and tactile manners Supply one talk at least in every class for pupils to give them tips for analyzing11Course of study interior decoratorsDesign course of studies with more focal point to images, graphs, diagrams etc†¦ Design course of studies that focus on ocular, audile and haptic mannersStudentsDesign box suggestions Design postings which show the importance of larning manners. Corporate with teachers to find acquisition manners12

Who Is The Word Hero - 1366 Words

Say the word â€Å"hero.† What is the first thing that comes to mind when one hears the word hero? Some may visualize Superman flying through the sky saving a young child, while hero for others may be a more realistic image of a soldier or police officer appearing at the time of need to save someone from danger. Still, others might think about Jesus Christ as a hero for his act of dying on the cross to save people from sin and death. Is a hero defined by the number of sacrifices he has made to the benefit of the society? Why are only certain people heroes? We all know what a hero is, but how would you define a hero? Heroism is an attribute celebrated in varied ways. Evidently, heroes are all around us, from Jesus Christ to everyday people. However, what qualifies a person as a hero is listening for the call to adventure, accepting the challenge, and then, be willing to do it all over again in order to assist humanity by conquering fear and facing problems. As noted earlier, a hero represents various connotations. Joseph Campbell would describe Jesus, Superman, and soldiers are all variants of the same hero. In the book, â€Å"The Hero of a Thousand Faces,† Campbell discusses many stories of ancient myths and explains that all heroes follow the same path of action during their quest. Campbell defines the hero’s sojourn as a cycle with the same key events. The hero begins in the ordinary world where he receives a mysterious invitation to answer a call to adventure to assistShow MoreRelatedMuch Ado About Nothing. Character Tracker. Character. Who1401 Words   |  6 PagesMuch Ado About Nothing Character Tracker Character Who is s/he? Position/ relationships to other characters How is s/he characterized? Major traits Major conflicts/concerns/changes Act I Act II Act III Act IV Act IV Beatrice Leonato’s niece and Hero’s cousin. Beatrice is â€Å"a pleasant-spirited lady† with a very sharp tongue. 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The Issue Of Substance Abuse Within Indigenous Communities

The issue of substance abuse within Indigenous communities is a key contributor for their over-representation in the YJS. For instance, results from the 2002 NATSISS (National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Survey) has indicated the likelihood of being charged for a criminal offence is 3 in 5 for high-risk alcohol users, in comparison to 1 in 4 for non-consumers (Weatherburn et al. 2006, p8). Moreover, the National Drug Strategy Household Survey has found that IY were more likely than NIY to have high-risk alcohol consumption (Juodo 2008, pp9-10). These findings provide a link for the higher rate of IY in the YJS and the government’s initiatives to implement punitive control on Indigenous communities regarding alcohol†¦show more content†¦According to (Hayes et al. 2004, p32), strong values developed in adolescents have indicated lower alcohol abuse and dependence at age 21. Without pre-existing values in IY to avoid alcohol assumption, the enforced rest rictions will not be as effective. Involvement of Indigenous leaders In the NT, 97% of youth in the juvenile detention are IY (Vita 2015, p8). According to Vita (2015, p11), youth in the YJS come from backgrounds of poverty, alcohol abuse, violence and dysfunctional relations; hence higher level of intervention is required for these young people. This report agrees that alcohol abuse and weak family ties contribute to IY’s representation within the YJS, but it argues that forms of interventions should be limited. As mentioned in previous works, early interventions may lead to youth labelled as criminals (McAra McVie 2010, p189; Paternoster and Iovanni 1989, p375). Additionally, previous interventions consisted of the removal of Aboriginal children from their natural families may affect the cultural identity of these youth (ATSIC 2000, p163; Graham 1999, p7 9). This has implications for the policies that seek to involve Aboriginal Elders in their response. Morgan et al. (2014, p77) has found the collaboration of Indigenous leaders in the development of crime prevention projects is an effective measure. However, this report is aware that this may not be effective for all IY. Due to the loss of cultural knowledge in manyShow MoreRelatedThe Problem Of Health And Wellbeing1506 Words   |  7 PagesHealth and wellbeing is well-defined across many countries as multi-dimensional and holistic approach specifically in Indigenous views. Health for Indigenous population is not only physical, but also social, emotional and cultural wellbeing of the whole community. However in Australia, there’s a lack of frameworks supporting the meaning of health that are based on Indigenous understanding (Priest et al. 2012). Thus some ethnic group also families living in poverty are being misrepresented by childRead MoreThe Social Determinants Of Health1555 Words   |  7 Pageslives of Indigenous people, has had a tremendous impact comprehensively. Af ter so, this contact decimated every aspect of the Indigenous way of life. The health and well-being of Indigenous people initiated to worsen severely not only in the physical aspect but also mental. According to National Household Survey conducted in 2011, 1,400,685 people have been identified as being a member of one of the Aboriginal groups within Canada. Within these Aboriginal groups, critical mental health issues such asRead MoreThe Assimilation Policy ( 1961 )1540 Words   |  7 PagesAssimilation policy (1961) has impacted on Indigenous Australians within their physical and mental state and identity present in today’s society. Australia is commonly considered to be free and fair in their culturally diverse societies, but when the Indigenous population is closer looked into, it is clear that from a social and economical view their health needs are disadvantaged compared to non-Indigenous equals. In relation to this, the present Indigenous health is being impacted by d isadvantagesRead MoreIntroduction. The Healthcare Improvement Of Aboriginal1291 Words   |  6 Pageshealthcare improvement of aboriginal population in countries like Australia has been a challenging issue in front of both government and non-government healthcare organizations. Significant gap is present between the government legislations and policies regarding the health and social wellbeing between the native Australian and indigenous communities. It is a concern of human rights among the indigenous people of Australia and the matter has been a topic of debate in the committee meeting of UnitedRead MoreAboriginals Marginalised in Todays Society1002 Words   |  5 PagesIndigenous Australians marginalized in today’s society Introduction Archaeologists believe that aboriginals first came to Australia about 45, 000 years ago and were the only population of humans in Australia until the British invasion. There are about 500 different aboriginal groups each with their own language and territory and usually made up of several separate clans. The aboriginals of Australia are marginalised in today society. This marginalisation began right back during the British invasionRead MoreThe Effects Of Residential Schools On Disadvantaged Backgrounds855 Words   |  4 Pagestremendous psychological abuse to not only the children being forced to leave their homes, but also to their guardians. After this traumatic event, many aboriginal people resorted to substance abuse in order to cope with their experience in these schools. One study reported â€Å"82 percent of individuals were involved in substance abuse behaviors after attending residential schools.† (Chansonneuve, 2007, p.22). I believe that there is a negative correla tion between substance abuse and crime rates, as provenRead MoreIncarceration And Drug And Alcohol Abuse Rehabilitation Programs1947 Words   |  8 Pagesas the minorities and indigenous groups who we see over and over again being imprisoned. There is also a pattern we see across different indigenous groups around different countries who are also facing similar problems because of their native’ status, such as Maori from New Zealand, Aboriginals from Canada and Indians from the USA, just to name a few. This essay will critically discuss the key issues identified by criminologists on huge incarceration rate for indigenous people, which includesRead MoreIndigenous Australia s Criminal Justice System3061 Words   |  13 PagesWhile Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people (Indigenous Australians) represent only about 3% of the total population of Australia, in 2013, they comprised over 27% of Australia s prison population (an increase from 25% in 2009). In the same year , the incarceration rate for Indigenous Australian prisoners was 15 times higher than the rate for their non-Indigenous counterparts, an increase in the ratio compared to 2011 (when it was 14 times higher) (ABS, 2013). It is evident from statisticalRead MoreIndigenous Disadvantage Essay2105 Words   |  9 PagesWorking Effectively with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People Why are Indigenous people in Australia still disadvantaged with regard to health care and services? For the last 200 years Indigenous people have been victims of discrimination, prejudice and disadvantage. Poor education, poor living conditions and general poverty are still overwhelming issues for a large percentage of our people and we remain ‘as a group, the most poverty stricken sector of the working class’ inRead MoreThe Damages Caused by Canadian Residential Schools for Indigenous Children in the 19th Century1618 Words   |  7 Pagesnineteenth century, the government of Canada felt it had an obligation to the nations people to educate the Indigenous population of the country. The federal government sought to pursue this task through the development of residential schools. Under this system, framed by the Davin Report, Congregations of Christian missionaries were responsible for providing compulsory education to Indigenous children within governmentally constructed schools. They were charged with assimilating these children into mainstream

Essay on Liberation Theology in Latin America - 1734 Words

The populist governments, seen in the 1950’s and 1960’s in South America, spurred industrial growth and a sense of â€Å"consciousness† amongst the inhabitants of the Latin American countries. The industrial growth greatly benefited the middle-class and the working-class; however, the poor were driven into shantytowns and rural areas. To illustrate the great poverty of this time in Latin America, people living in â€Å"shantytowns† resided in vast settlements built of cardboard and other available materials such as metal and sheets of plastic. These â€Å"towns† frequently lacked proper sanitation. One could imagine how living in these shantytowns would degrade the human spirit and foster a sense of worthlessness. The abrupt shift in the social classes†¦show more content†¦A series of crucial literature was produced between 1959 and 1964 in Brazil; the literature intertwined Christian principles, social and liberal sciences, and stressed t he need for active engagement in the world in relation to justice for those oppressed. In Bogotà ¡, Colombia the first Liberation Theology-based congregations were held in March of 1970 and July of 1971 (Introducing Liberation Theology). Gustavo Gutierrez was to be credited with the foundation of Liberation Theology. Gustavo Gutierrez, a Peruvian Theologian, is credited for the foundation of Liberation Theology. He was the author of A Theology of Liberation, which was published in 1971 during the beginning stages of Liberation Theology. The text heavily emphasized God’s preference of those who are oppressed and challenged scholars to review their preconceived notions on scripture study. In addition, A Theology of Liberation made religion more accessible and meaningful to those who faced oppression or poverty (Gustavo Gutierrez and the Preferential Option for the Poor). In Liberation Theology, according to Gutierrez, Liberation Theologians take upon a view from those individuals who are on the lower end of the social and economical ladder. Gutierrez states Liberationists must start at â€Å"praxis†. The term â€Å"praxis† refers toShow MoreRelatedLiberation Theology Essay865 Words   |  4 PagesJeremy Partin I. Title Page II. Thesis Page III. Introduction Liberation theology in Latin America was first introduced in the late 1960’s, although it became famous after the writing of Gustavo Gutierrez. The roots of liberation theology can be traced back to Europe because Catholic priests were sent there to go to school. It was there where they became radicalized and sent back to Latin America. This radicalization led many to start thinking differently, including Gutierrez. He and othersRead MoreLiberation Theology Essay1157 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction According to Enns (2008), liberation theology attempts to infer the holy writ through the plight of the poor. This movement originated from South America in the early 1950s when Marxism was the most popular theory among the poor. It was a response to the ill-treatment and poverty facing the ordinary people. It dealt with the issue of distribution of wealth among people in order to upgrade the economic status in life. This movement had strong Romanian Catholic roots bolstered in ColombiaRead MoreLiberation Theology And The Cultural Destruction Of Third World Countries927 Words   |  4 Pagesdestruction of third world countries, liberation theology is a method of Catholic teaching in which people are liberated from their oppressors. Liberation theology’s roots stem in Latin America, where there was need for salvation and redemption of the faith. The 1960s were a time of worldwide human development, and even the Roman Catholic Church was involved. Without liberation theology, t he church would have never seen a need for change and reformation. Liberation theology applies modern happenings to theRead MoreEssay about Liberation Theology796 Words   |  4 PagesLiberation Theology I see [liberation theology] as a theology of the people, rather than of professional theologians; rising out of the cries of the oppressed; refined in the experience of those who may not even be able to read and write; clarified in thousands of base communities; embodied in lives that risk everything to be faithful to the good news that God hears their cry, sides with them in their distress, and works with them for liberation- a liberation in which they play a central roleRead MoreHistory Of South American Poverty And The Development Of Liberation Theology1451 Words   |  6 PagesLiberation Theology â€Å"But the poor person does not exist as an inescapable fact of destiny. His or her existence is not politically neutral, and it is not ethically innocent. The poor are a by-product of the system in which we live and for which we are responsible. They are marginalized by our social and cultural world. They are the oppressed, exploited proletariat, robbed of the fruit of their labor and despoiled of their humanity. Hence the poverty of the poor is not a call to generous relief actionRead MoreAnalyzing Black Liberation Theology, Latin American Liberation Theology, and Feminist Theology1371 Words   |  6 PagesLiberation Theology Black Liberation Theology, Latin American Liberation Theology, and Feminist Theology Liberation theology comprises of two main principles: it recognizes the call for liberation from any form of oppression economic, political, and social: second, it says that theology must grow from the basic Christian communities and not from above. Liberation theology examines the theological meaning of human activities, which includes an explanation of the Christian faith out of sufferingRead MoreLatin America and the Catholic Church Essay746 Words   |  3 PagesRunning head: LATIN AMERICA AND THE CATHOLIC CHURCH xxxx HUMN xxx xxxx February 11, 2011 In 1983, Pope John Paul II visited Nicaragua in response to word that a growing alliance between priests and Marxists revolutionaries was emerging in Latin America. Historically, the Catholic Church in Europe had taken a strong anti-communist stance. And so the emerging alliance troubled Pope John Paul II despite the fact that priests claimed they were simply doing what Christ would do in championingRead More`` Jesus And Violence `` By Jon Sobrino1369 Words   |  6 PagesFor many years, violence has been the answer to conflicts in many Latin American countries. According to Jon Sobrino, â€Å"Latin America is an extremely violent continent.† The option for the poor has arisen in Latin America, a continent that is mostly poor and Christian. Latin America has always been characterized by the difference of social classes and by the oppression of the poor. The option for the poor has arisen in Latin America, a continent that is mostly poor and Christian. As a result of theseRe ad More Separation of Church and State in Latin America Essay7515 Words   |  31 PagesSeparation of Church and State in Latin America Throughout Latin American history, the Roman Catholic Church has played a tumultuous role, from passive soul saving to aggressive revolutionary actions. As the countries have turned toward democracy the Catholic Church has had to recognize that along with modernization comes the promotion of two democratic ideals: the separation of Church and State and the endorsement of secularization. While many countries are still working toward a separationRead MoreEssay on Oscar Romero, Liberation Theology and the Catholic Church3831 Words   |  16 PagesOscar Romero, Liberation Theology and the Catholic Church In the post-World War II era, the globe was polarized by two idealistically divergent superpowers; the United States and the Soviet Union, two nations that strived to promote capitalism and communism, respectively, throughout the globe. Nowhere was this struggle more apparent than in developing countries with shaky political and economic backbones. Specifically, in Latin America the old, corrupt and often totalitarian regimes were threatened

CHAPTER 1 Managers and Managing Learning Objectives Free Essays

string(238) " announced that Apple planned to introduce its new iPad tablet computer, which he claimed would be the best way to experience the Web, e-mail, and photos and would also have a wireless reading function to compete directly against Amazon\." CHAPTER 1 Managers and Managing Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: LO1-1 Describe what management is, why management is important, what managers do, and how managers utilize organizational resources efficiently and effectively to achieve organizational goals. LO1-2 Distinguish among planning, organizing, leading, and controlling (the four principal managerial tasks), and explain how managers’ ability to handle each one affects organizational performance. LO1-3 Differentiate among three levels of management, and understand the tasks and responsibilities of managers at different levels in the organizational hierarchy. We will write a custom essay sample on CHAPTER 1 Managers and Managing Learning Objectives or any similar topic only for you Order Now LO1-4 Distinguish between three kinds of managerial skill, and explain why managers are divided into different departments to perform their tasks more efficiently and effectively. LO1-5 Discuss some major changes in management practices today that have occurred as a result of globalization and the use of advanced information technology (IT). LO1-6 Discuss the principal challenges managers face in today’s increasingly competitive global environment. Management part 1 A MANAGER’S CHALLENGE Steve Jobs has Changed His Approach to Management What is high-performance management? In 1976 Steven P. Jobs sold his Volkswagen van, and his partner Steven Wozniak sold his two programmable calculators, and they used the proceeds of $1,350 to build a circuit board in Jobs’s garage. So popular was the circuit board, which developed into the Apple II personal computer (PC), that in 1977 Jobs and Wozniak founded Apple Computer to make and sell it. By 1985 Apple’s sales had exploded to almost $2 billion, but in the same year Jobs was forced out of the company he founded. Jobs’s approach to management was a big part of the reason he lost control of Apple. Jobs saw his main task as leading the planning process to develop new and improved PCs. Although this was a good strategy, his management style was often arbitrary and overbearing. For example, Jobs often played favorites among the many project teams he created. His approach caused many conflicts and led to fierce competition, many misunderstandings, and growing distrust among members of the different teams. Jobs’s abrasive management style also brought him into conflict with John Sculley, Apple’s CEO. Employees became unsure whether Jobs (the chairman) or Sculley was leading the company. Both managers were Apple’s CEO Steve Jobs proudly shows off his company’s new i Pad tablet computer in March 2010. More than 1 million i Pads were sold within a month. so busy competing for control of Apple that the task of ensuring its resources were being used efficiently was neglected. Apple’s costs soared, and its performance and profits fell. Apple’s directors became convinced Jobs’s management style was the heart of the problem and asked him to resign. After he left Apple, Jobs started new ventures. First he founded PC maker NEXT to develop a powerful new PC that would outperform Apple’s PCs. Then he founded Pixar, a computer animation company, which become a huge success after it made blockbuster movies such as Toy Story and Finding Nemo, both distributed by Walt Disney. In both these companies Jobs developed a clear vision for managers to follow, and he built strong management teams to lead the project teams developing the new PCs and movies. Jobs saw his main task as planning the companies’ future product development strategies. However, he left the actual tasks of leading and organizing to managers below him. He gave them the autonomy to put his vision into practice. In both companies he encouraged a culture of collaboration and innovation to champion creative thinking. Meanwhile Apple was struggling to compete against Michael Dell’s new, low-cost PCs loaded with Microsoft’s Windows software. Its performance was plummeting, and to help his old company survive, in 1996 Jobs convinced Apple to buy NEXT for $400 million and use its powerful operating system in new Apple PCs. Jobs began working inside Apple to lead its turnaround and was so successful that in 1997 he was asked to become its CEO. Jobs agreed and continued to put the new anagement skills he had developed over time to good  use. The first thing he did was create a clear vision and goals to energize and motivate Apple employees. Jobs decided that to survive, Apple had to introduce state-of-the-art, stylish PCs and related digital equipment. He instituted an across-the-board planning process and created a team stru cture that allowed programmers and engineers to pool their skills to develop new PCs. He delegated considerable authority to the teams, but he also established strict timetables and challenging â€Å"stretch† goals, such as bringing new products to market as quickly as possible, for these groups. One result of these efforts was Apple’s sleek new line of iMac PCs, which were quickly followed by a wide range of futuristic PC-related products. 1 In 2003 Jobs announced that Apple was starting a new service called iTunes, an online music store from which people could download songs for 99 cents. At the same time Apple introduced its iPod music player, which can store thousands of downloaded songs, and it quickly became a runaway success. Apple continually introduced new generations of the iPod, each more compact, powerful, and versatile than previous models. By 2006 Apple had gained control of 70% of the digital music player market and 80% of the online music download business, and  its  stock price soared to a new record  level. The next milestone in Jobs’s managerial history came in 2007 when he announced that Apple would introduce the iPhone to compete directly with the popular Blackberry. Once again he assembled a team of engineers not only to develop the new phone but to create an online iPhone applications platform where users would e able to download iPhone applications to make their phones more useful—able to surf the Web and interact with their friends. By 2010 over 2 million iPhone applications had been developed, over 2 billion applications had been downloaded by iPhone users, and Apple was the leader in the smartphone market. In 2010 Jobs announced that Apple planned to introduce its new iPad tablet computer, which he claimed would be the best way to experience the Web, e-mail, and photos and would also ha ve a wireless reading function to compete directly against Amazon. You read "CHAPTER 1 Managers and Managing Learning Objectives" in category "Essay examples" com’s successful Kindle ireless reader. 2 Jobs organized a new engineering unit to pioneer the development of applications for its new iPad, and in spring 2010 analysts and customers were eagerly awaiting its innovative new digital tablet that could potentially revolutionize yet another industry and make Apple the most profitable company in global computers and electronics. When Apple announced on March 5 that the iPad would be released for sale on April 13, 2010, its stock rose to a record high of $219, and analysts claimed the company’s stock might become worth more than Walmart’s! Overview The history of Steve Jobs’s ups and downs as founder and manager of Apple and his other companies illustrates many challenges facing people who become managers: Managing a company is a complex activity, and effective managers must possess many kinds of skills, knowledge, and abilities. Management is an unpredictable process. Making the right decision is dif? cult; even effective managers often make mistakes, but the most effective managers, like Jobs, learn from their mistakes and continually strive to ? nd ways to increase their companies’ performance. In this chapter we look at what managers do and what skills and abilities they must develop to manage their organizations successfully. We also identify the different kinds of managers that organizations need and the skills and abilities they must develop to succeed. Finally, we identify some challenges managers must address if their organizations are to grow and prosper. What Is Management? organizations Collections of people who work together and coordinate their actions to achieve a wide variety of goals or desired future outcomes. anagement The planning, organizing, leading, and controlling of human and other resources to achieve organizational goals efficiently and effectively. When you think of a manager, what kind of person comes to mind? Do you see someone who, like Steve Jobs, can determine the future prosperity of a large for-pro? t company? Or do you see the administrator of a not-for-pro? t organization, such as a community college, library, or charity, or the person in c harge of your local Walmart store or McDonald’s restaurant, or the person you answer to if you have a part-time job? What do all these people have in common? First, they all work in organizations. Organizations are collections of people who work together and coordinate their actions to achieve a wide variety of goals, or desired future outcomes. 3 Second, as managers, they are the people responsible for supervising and making the most of an organization’s human and other resources to achieve its goals. Management, then, is the planning, organizing, leading, and controlling of human and other resources to achieve organizational goals ef? ciently and effectively. An organization’s resources include assets such as people and their skills, know-how, and experience; machinery; raw materials; computers and information technology; and patents, ? nancial capital, and loyal customers and employees. 6 Chapter 1 LO1-1 Describe what management is, why management is important, what managers do, and how managers utilize organizational resources efficiently and effectively to achieve organizational goals. Achieving High Performance: A Manager’s Goal One of the most important goals that organizations and their members try to achieve is to provide some kind of good or service that customers value or desire. The principal goal of CEO Steve Jobs is to manage Apple so it creates a continuous stream of new and improved goods and services—such as more powerful PCs, more versatile iPods and iPhones, and the ability to easily download diverse kinds of digital content from the Internet—that customers are willing to buy. In 2010 Apple led the ? eld in many of these areas; its managers are currently working to make its new iPad the industry leader. Similarly, the principal goal of doctors, nurses, and hospital administrators is to increase their hospital’s ability to make sick people well—and to do so cost-effectively. Likewise, the principal goal of each McDonald’s restaurant manager is to produce burgers, salads, fries, and shakes that people want to pay for and eat so they become loyal return customers. Organizational performance is a measure of how ef? ciently and effectively managers use available resources to satisfy customers and achieve organizational goals. Organizational performance increases in direct proportion to increases in ef? ciency and effectiveness (see Figure 1. 1). What are ef? ciency and effectiveness? Ef? ciency is a measure of how productively resources are used to achieve a goal. Organizations are ef? cient when managers minimize the amount of input resources (such as labor, raw materials, and component parts) or the amount of time needed to produce a given output of goods or services. For example, McDonald’s develops ever more ef? cient fat fryers that not only reduce the amount of oil used in cooking, but also speed up the cooking of french fries. UPS develo ps new work routines to reduce delivery time, such as instructing drivers to leave their truck doors open when going short distances. Steve Jobs instructed Apple’s engineers not only to develop rganizational performance A measure of how efficiently and effectively a manager uses resources to satisfy customers and achieve organizational goals. ef? ciency A measure of how well or how productively resources are used to achieve a goal. Figure 1. 1 Ef? ciency, Effectiveness, and Performance in an Organization EFFICIENCY LOW Low efficiency/ high effectiveness Manager chooses the right goals to pursue, but does a poor job of using resources to achieve these goals. Result: A product that customers want, but that is too expensive for them to buy. HIGH High efficiency/ high effectiveness Manager chooses the right goals to pursue and makes good use of resources to achieve these goals. Result: A product that customers want at a quality and price they can afford. EFFECTIVENESS HIGH Low efficiency/ low effectiveness LOW Manager chooses wrong goals to pursue and makes poor use of resources. Result: A low-quality product that customers do not want. High efficiency/ low effectiveness Manager chooses inappropriate goals, but makes good use of resources to pursue these goals. Result: A high-quality product that customers do not want. High-performing organizations are efficient and effective. Managers and Managing 7 effectiveness A measure of the appropriateness of the goals an organization is pursuing and the degree to which the organization achieves those goals. ever more compact, powerful, and multipurpose models of its iPod and iPhone but also to ? nd cost-effective ways to do so, such as by outsourcing manufacturing to China. A manager’s responsibility is to ensure that an organization and its members perform as ef? ciently as possible all the activities needed to provide goods and services to customers. Effectiveness is a measure of the appropriateness of the goals that managers have selected for the organization to pursue and the degree to which the organization achieves those goals. Organizations are effective when managers choose appropriate goals and then achieve them. Some years ago, for example, managers at McDonald’s decided on the goal of providing breakfast service to attract more customers. The choice of this goal has proved smart: Sales of breakfast food now account for more than 30% of McDonald’s revenues and are still increasing. Jobs’s goal is to create a continuous ? ow of innovative PC and digital entertainment products. High-performing organizations, such as Apple, McDonald’s, Walmart, Intel, Home Depot, Accenture, and Habitat for Humanity are simultaneously ef? cient and effective. Effective managers are those who choose the right organizational goals to pursue and have the skills to utilize resources ef? ciently. Why Study Management? Today more students are competing for places in business courses than ever before; the number of people wishing to pursue Master of Business Administration (MBA) degrees—today’s passport to an advanced management position—either on campus or from online universities and colleges is at an all-time high. Why is the study of management currently so popular? 5 First, in any society or culture resources are valuable and scarce; so the more ef? cient and effective use that organizations can make of those resources, the greater the relative well-being and prosperity of people in that society. Because managers decide how to use many of a society’s most valuable resources—its skilled employees, raw materials like oil and land, computers and information systems, and ? nancial assets— they directly impact the well-being of a society and the people in it. Understanding what managers do and how they do it is of central importance to understanding how a society creates wealth and af? uence for its citizens. Second, although most people are not managers, and many may never intend to become managers, almost all of us encounter managers because most people have jobs and bosses. Moreover, many people today work in groups and teams and have to deal with coworkers. Studying management helps people deal with their bosses and their coworkers. It reveals how to understand other people at work and make decisions and take actions that win the attention and support of the boss and coworkers. Management teaches people not yet in positions of authority how to lead coworkers, solve con? icts between them, achieve team goals, and thus increase performance. Third, in any society, people are in competition for a very important resource—a job that pays well and provides an interesting and satisfying career; and understanding management is one important path toward obtaining this objective. In general, jobs become more interesting the more complex or responsible they are. Any person who desires motivating job that changes over time might therefore do well to develop management skills and become promotable. A person who has been working for several years and then returns to school for an MBA can usually, after earning the degree, ? nd a more interesting, satisfying job that pays signi? cantly more than the previous job. Moreover, salaries increase rapidly as people move up the organizational hierarchy, whether it is a school system, a large for-pro? t business organization , or a not-for-pro? t charitable or medical institution. Indeed, the salaries paid to top managers are enormous. For example, the CEOs and other top executives or managers of companies such as Apple, Walt Disney, GE, and McDonald’s receive millions in actual salary each year. However, even more staggering is the fact that many top executives also receive bonuses in the form of 8 Chapter 1 valuable stock or shares in the company they manage, as well as stock options that give them the right to sell these shares at a certain time in the future. 6 If the value of the stock goes up, the managers keep the difference between the price at which they obtained the stock option (say, $10) and what it is worth later (say, $33). When Steve Jobs became CEO of Apple again in 1997 he accepted a salary of only $1 a year. However, he was also awarded stock options that, with the fast rise in Apple’s stock price throughout the 2000s, are worth billions of dollars today (he was also given the free use of a $90 million jet). 7 In 2010 Goldman Sachs paid its top managers stock bonuses worth $16. 2 billion, and its CEO Lloyd Blankfein received Goldman Sachs stock worth over $8 billion—but this was only half the value of the stock that JPMorgan Chase CEO Jamie Dimon received from his company! These incredible amounts of money provide some indication of both the responsibilities and the rewards that accompany the achievement of high management positions in major companies—and go to anybody who successfully creates and manages a small business. What is it that managers actually do to receive such rewards? 9 Essential Managerial Tasks The job of management is to help an organization make the best use of its resources to achieve its goals. How do managers accomplish this objective? They do so by performing four essential managerial tasks: planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. The arrows linking these tasks in Figure 1. suggest the sequence in which managers typically perform them. French manager Henri Fayol ? rst outlined the nature of these managerial activities around the turn of the 20th century in General and Industrial Management, a book that remains the classic statement of what managers must do to create a high-performing organization. 10 Managers at all levels and in all departments—whether in small or large companies, for-pro? t or not-for-pro? t organizations, or organizations that operate in one country or throughout the world—are responsible for performing these four tasks, which we look at next. How well managers perform these tasks determines how ef? cient and effective their organizations are. Figure 1. 2 Four Tasks of Management Planning Choose appropriate organizational goals and courses of action to best achieve those goals. Controlling Establish accurate measuring and monitoring systems to evaluate how well the organization has achieved its goals. Organizing Establish task and authority relationships that allow people to work together to achieve organization goals. Leading Motivate, coordinate, and energize individuals and groups to work together to achieve organizational goals. Managers and Managing 9 LO1-2 Distinguish among planning, organizing, leading, and controlling (the four principal managerial tasks), and explain how managers’ ability to handle each one affects organizational performance. Planning To perform the planning task, managers identify and select appropriate organizational goals and courses of action; they develop strategies for how to achieve high performance. The three steps involved in planning are (1) deciding which goals the organization will pursue, (2) deciding what strategies to adopt to attain those goals, and (3) deciding how to allocate organizational resources to pursue the strategies that attain those goals. How well managers plan and develop strategies determines how effective and ef? cient the organization is—its performance level. 11 As an example of planning in action, consider the situation confronting Michael Dell, founder and CEO of Dell Computer, who by 2010 was in a major contest planning Identifying and selecting appropriate goals; with Steve Jobs to retain leadership in the PC and digital device market. In 1984 one of the four principal tasks the 19-year-old Dell saw an opportunity to enter the PC market by assembling PCs of management. and selling them directly to customers. Dell began to plan how to put his idea into practice. First, he decided that his goal was to sell an inexpensive PC, to undercut the prices charged by companies like Apple, Compaq, and HP. Second, he had to choose a course of action to achieve this goal. He decided to sell PCs directly to customers by telephone and so bypass expensive computer stores that sold Compaq and Apple PCs. He also had to decide how to obtain low-cost components and how to tell potential customers about his products. Third, he had to decide how to allocate his limited funds (he had only $5,000) to buy labor and other resources. He hired three people and worked with them around a table to assemble his PCs. Thus to achieve his goal of making and selling lowMichael Dell sits in the dorm room at the University of price PCs, Dell had to plan, and as his organization Texas–Austin, where he launched his personal computer grew, his plans changed and became progressively company as a college freshman. When he visited, the room more complex. After setbacks during the 2000s that was occupied by freshmen Russell Smith (left) and Jacob Frith, both from Plano, Texas. aw HP, Apple, and a new Taiwanese company, Acer, achieve competitive advantage over Dell in performance, styling, or pricing, Dell and his managers actively searched for new strategies to better compete against agile rivals and help the company regain its position as the highest-performing PC maker. In 2010 Dell was still locked in a major battle with its competitors, and its performance had not recovered despite attempts to introduce innovative new m odels of laptops and digital devices such as its own music player (which ? pped). Dell needed a new approach to planning to compete more effectively; and new strategies Dell announced in 2010 included more powerful, customized lines of new laptops, and a plan to introduce its own smartphone and tablet computer. As the battle between Dell, HP, Acer, and Apple suggests, the outcome of planstrategy A cluster of ning is a strategy, a cluster of decisions concerning what organizational goals to decisions about what goals to pursue, what actions to take, and how to use resources to achieve these goals. The pursue, what actions to take, decisions that were the outcome of Michael Dell’s original planning formed a low-cost and how to use resources to strategy. A low-cost strategy is a way of obtaining customers by making decisions that achieve goals. allow an organization to produce goods or services more cheaply than its competitors so it can charge lower prices than they do. Throughout its history, Dell has continuously re? ned this strategy and explored new ways to reduce costs; Dell became the most pro? able PC maker as a result of its low-cost strategy, but when HP and Acer also lowered their costs it lost its competitive advantage and its pro? ts fell. By contrast, since its founding Apple’s strategy has been to deliver to customers new, exciting, and unique computer and digital products, such as its iPods, iPhones, and its new iPads—a strategy known as differentiation. 12 Although this strategy almost ruined Apple in the 1990s when customers bought inexpens ive Dell PCs rather its premiumpriced PCs, today Apple’s sales have boomed as customers turn to its unique PCs 0 Chapter 1 and digital products. To ? ght back, Dell has been forced to offer more exciting, stylish products—hence its decision to introduce a new smartphone to compete with the iPhone. Planning strategy is complex and dif? cult, especially because planning is done under uncertainty when the result is unknown so that success or failure are both possible outcomes of the planning process. Managers take major risks when they commit organizational resources to pursue a particular strategy. Dell enjoyed great success in the past with its low-cost strategy; but presently Apple is performing spectacularly with its differentiation strategy, and HP has enjoyed a major turnaround because by lowering its costs it now can offer customers attractive, stylish PCs at prices similar to Dell’s. In Chapter 8 we focus on the planning process and on the strategies organizations can select to respond to opportunities or threats in an industry. The story of Anne Mulcahy’s rise to the top at Xerox and her decision to give control of the company to its new CEO, Ursula Burns, illustrates how important the abilities to plan and create the right strategies are to a manager’s career success. Ursula Burns â€Å"Copies† Anne Mulcahy as  CEO of Xerox By the early 2000s Xerox, the well-known copier company, was near bankruptcy. The combination of aggressive Japanese competitors, which were selling low-priced copiers, and a shift toward digital copying, which made Xerox’s pioneering light-lens copying process obsolete, was resulting in plummeting sales. Losing billions of dollars, Xerox’s board searched for a new CEO who could revitalize the company’s product line. The person they chose to plan the company’s transformation was Anne Mulcahy, a 26-year Xerox veteran. Mulcahy began her career as a Xerox copier salesperson, transferred into human resource management, and then used her considerable leadership skills to work her way up the company’s hierarchy to become its president. As the new CEO, the biggest management challenge Mulcahy faced was deciding how to reduce Xerox’s high operating costs. At the same time, however, she had to plan the best strategies for Xerox. Speci? cally, she had to decide how to best invest the company’s remaining research dollars to innovate desperately needed new kinds of digital copiers that would attract customers back to the company and generate new revenues and pro? ts. Simultaneously achieving both these objectives is one of the biggest challenges a manager can face, and how well she performed these tasks would determine Xerox’s fate— indeed its survival. To ? d a solution to this problem, Mulcahy, known as an unassuming CEO who prefers to stay in the backFormer Xerox CEO Anne Mulcahy with her handpicked ground, focused her efforts on involving and listening to successor, Ursula Burns, who became the first female Xerox’s managers, employees, and customers. Mulcahy African-American manager to take change of a major U. S. corporation. began a series of â€Å"town hall† meetings with Xerox employees, asked th em for all kinds of creative input and their best efforts, but told them that tough times were ahead and that layoffs would be necessary. At the same time she emphasized that only their hard work to ? nd ways to reduce costs could save the company. To help discover how the Manager as a Person Managers and Managing 11 company should best invest its RD budget, Mulcahy made reaching out to customers her other main priority. She insisted that managers and engineers at all levels should visit, meet, and talk to customers to uncover what they most wanted from new digital copiers—and from Xerox. During one of her initiatives, called â€Å"Focus 500,† which required Xerox’s top 200 managers to visit its top 500 customers, she came to increasingly appreciate the skills of Ursula Burns, who had joined Xerox four years after her and was quickly establishing her own reputation as a manager. Burns, who had started her career as a mechanical engineer, was then the manager in charge of its manufacturing and supply chain activities. By listening closely to both employees and customers, Mulcahy and Xerox’s managers and engineers gained insights that led to the development of new strategies that transformed the company’s product line. Mulcahy’s strategy was to spend most of the RD budget on developing two new kinds of digital copiers: a line of digital color copying machines for use by medium-sized and large businesses and a line of low-end copiers offering print quality, speed, and prices that even Japanese competitors could not match. To shrink costs Mulcahy also reduced the number of levels in Xerox’s management hierarchy, cutting 26% from corporate overhead, and streamlined its operating units, reducing the number of employees from 95,000 to 55,000. By 2007 it was clear that Mulcahy and her managers—in particular Ursula Burns, who was now Mulcahy’s second in command—had devised a successful turnaround plan to save Xerox. Continuing to work closely with customers, Mulcahy and Burns developed new strategies for Xerox based on improved products and services. In talking to Xerox customers, for example, it became clear they wanted a combination of copying software and hardware that would allow them to create highly customized documents for their own customers. Banks, retail stores, and small businesses needed personalized software to create individual client statements, for example. Mulcahy decided to grow the customized services side of Xerox’s business to meet these specialized needs. She also decided to replicate Xerox’s sales and customer service operations around the globe and customize them to the needs of customers in each country. The result was soaring pro? ts. In 2009 Mulcahy decided she would leave the position of CEO to become Xerox’s chairperson, and her hand-picked successor Ursula Burns would become its next CEO. The move to transfer power from one woman CEO to another at the same company is exceptional, and Burns is also the ? rst AfricanAmerican woman to head a public company as large as Xerox. Ursula Burns became Xerox’s CEO in July 2009, and within six months she announced a new major planning initiative. Xerox would acquire Af? liated Computer Services for $6. 4 billion so Xerox could increase its push to provide highly customized customer service. Burns said the acquisition would be a major game changer because it would triple Xerox’s service revenue to over $10 billion and increase total company revenues to $22 billion. Also, $400 million in cost savings were expected. Xerox’s shares have climbed 40% since Burns took over as CEO, and she is busily looking for further strategies to increase Xerox’s growth. Indeed, Mulcahy decided that with Burns at the helm, Xerox’s future looks bright, and she decided to retire in May 2010, at which time Burns will also become its chairman. organizing Structuring working relationships in a way that allows organizational members to work together to achieve organizational goals; one of the four principal tasks of management. Organizing Organizing is structuring working relationships so organizational members interact and cooperate to achieve organizational goals. Organizing people into departments according to the kinds of job-speci? tasks they perform lays out the lines of authority and responsibility between different individuals and groups. Managers must decide how best to organize resources, particularly human resources. 12 Chapter 1 organizational structure A formal system of task and reporting relationships that coordinates and motivates organizational members so they work together to achieve organizational goals. The outcome of organizing is the creation of an organizational structure, a formal system of task and reporting relationships that coordinates and motivates members so they work together to achieve organizational goals. Organizational structure determines how an organization’s resources can be best used to create goods and services. As his company grew, for example, Michael Dell faced the issue of how to structure his organization. Early on he was hiring 100 new employees a week and deciding how to design his managerial hierarchy to best motivate and coordinate managers’ activities. As his organization grew to become one of the largest global PC makers, he and his managers created progressively more complex forms of organizational structure to help it achieve its goals. We examine the organizing process in detail in Chapters 10 through 12. Leading leading Articulating a clear vision and energizing and enabling organizational members so they understand the part they play in achieving organizational goals; one of the four principal tasks of management. An organization’s vision is a short, succinct, and inspiring statement of what the organization intends to become and the goals it is seeking to achieve—its desired future state. In leading, managers articulate a clear organizational vision for the organization’s members to accomplish, and they energize and enable employees so everyone understands the part he or she plays in achieving organizational goals. Leadership involves managers using their power, personality, in? uence, persuasion, and communication skills to coordinate people and groups so their activities and efforts are in harmony. Leadership revolves around encouraging all employees to perform at a high level to help the organization Ken Chenault, pictured here, is the president and CEO of achieve its vision and goals. American Express Company. Promoted in 1997, he climbed Another outcome of leaderthe ranks from its Travel Related Services Company thanks ship is a highly motivated to his even temper and unrelenting drive. Respected by coland committed workforce. eagues for his personality, most will say they can’t remember Employees responded well him losing his temper or raising his voice. His open-door policy for subordinates allows him to mentor AmEx managers to Michael Dell’s handsand encourages all to enter and speak their minds. on leadership style, which has resulted in a hardworking, committed workforce . Managers at Apple now appreciate Steve Jobs’s new leadership style, which is based on his willingness to delegate authority to project teams and his ability to help managers resolve differences that could easily lead to bitter disputes and power struggles. We discuss the issues involved in managing and leading individuals and groups in Chapters 13 through 16. Controlling controlling Evaluating how well an organization is achieving its goals and taking action to maintain or improve performance; one of the four principal tasks of management. In controlling, the task of managers is to evaluate how well an organization has achieved its goals and to take any corrective actions needed to maintain or improve performance. For example, managers monitor the performance of individuals, departments, and the organization as a whole to see whether they are meeting desired performance standards. Michael Dell learned early in his career how important this is; it took Steve Jobs longer. If standards are not being met, managers seek ways to improve performance. Managers and Managing 13 The outcome of the control process is the ability to measure performance accurately and regulate organizational ef? ciency and effectiveness. To exercise control, managers must decide which goals to measure—perhaps goals pertaining to productivity, quality, or responsiveness to customers—and then they must design control systems that will provide the information necessary to assess performance—that is, determine to what degree the goals have been met. The controlling task also helps managers evaluate how well they themselves are performing the other three tasks of management—planning, organizing, and leading—and take corrective action. Michael Dell had dif? culty establishing effective control systems because his company was growing so rapidly and he lacked experienced managers. In the 1990s Dell’s costs suddenly soared because no systems were in place to control inventory, and in 1994 poor quality control resulted in a defective line of new laptop computers—some of which caught ? re. To solve these and other control problems, Dell hired hundreds of experienced managers from other companies to put the right control systems in place. As a result, by 2000 Dell was able to make computers for over 10% less than its competitors, which created a major source of competitive advantage. At its peak, Dell drove competitors out of the market because it had achieved a 20% cost advantage over them. 13 However, we noted earlier that through the 2000s rivals such as HP and Acer also learned how to reduce their operating costs, and this shattered Dell’s competitive advantage. Controlling, like the other managerial tasks, is an ongoing, dynamic, always-changing process that demands constant attention and action. We cover the most important aspects of the control task in Chapters 10, 11, 17, and 18. The four managerial tasks—planning, organizing, leading, and controlling—are essential parts of a manager’s job. At all levels in the managerial hierarchy, and across all jobs and departments in an organization, effective management means performing these four activities successfully—in ways that increase ef? iency and effectiveness. Performing Managerial Tasks: Mintzberg’s Typology Our discussion of managerial tasks may seem to suggest that a manager’s job is highly orchestrated and that management is an orderly process in which managers rationally calculate the best way to use resources to achieve organizational goals. In reality, being a manager often involves acting emotionally and relying on gut feelings. Quick, imm ediate reactions to situations, rather than deliberate thought and re? ection, are an important aspect of managerial action. 4 Often managers are overloaded with responsibilities and do not have time to analyze every nuance of a situation; they therefore make decisions in uncertain conditions not knowing which outcomes will be best. 15 Moreover, top managers face constantly changing situations, and a decision that seems right today may prove to be wrong tomorrow. The range of problems that managers face is enormous; managers usually must handle many problems simultaneously; and they often must make snap decisions using the intuition and experience gained through their careers to perform their jobs to the best of their abilities. 6 Henry Mintzberg, by following managers and observing what they actually do—hour by hour and day by day—identi? ed 10 kinds of speci? c roles, or sets of job responsibilities, that capture the dynamic nature of managerial work. 17 He grouped t hese roles according to whether the responsibility was primarily decisional, interpersonal, or informational; they are described in Table 1. 1. Given the many complex, dif? cult job responsibilities managers have, it is no small wonder that many claim they are performing their jobs well if they are right just half of the time. 8 And it is understandable that many experienced managers accept failure by their subordinates as a normal part of the learning experience and a rite of passage to becoming an effective manager. Managers and their subordinates learn from both their successes and their failures. 14 Chapter 1 Table  1. 1 Managerial Roles Identi? ed by Mintzberg Type of Role Speci? c Role Examples of Role Activities Decisional Entrepreneur Disturbance handler Resource allocator Negotiator Interpersonal Figurehead Leader Liaison Informational Monitor Disseminator Spokesperson Commit organizational resources to develop innovative goods and services; decide to expand internationally to obtain new customers for the organization’s products. Move quickly to take corrective action to deal with unexpected problems facing the organization from the external environment, such as a crisis like an oil spill, or from the internal environment, such as producing faulty goods or services. Allocate organizational resources among different tasks and departments of the organization; set budgets and salaries of middle and ? st-level managers. Work with suppliers, distributors, and labor unions to reach agreements about the quality and price of input, technical, and human resources; work with other organizations to establish agreements to pool resources to work on joint projects. Outline future organizational goals to employees at company meetings; open a new corporate headquarters building; state the organization’s ethical guidelines and the princi ples of behavior employees are to follow in their dealings with customers and suppliers. Provide an example for employees to follow; give direct commands and orders to subordinates; make decisions concerning the use of human and technical resources; mobilize employee support for speci? c organizational goals. Coordinate the work of managers in different departments; establish alliances between different organizations to share resources to produce new goods and services. Evaluate the performance of managers in different tasks and take corrective action to improve their performance; watch for changes occurring in the external and internal environments that may affect the organization in the future. Inform employees about changes taking place in the external and internal environments that will affect them and the organization; communicate to employees the organization’s vision and purpose. Launch a national advertising campaign to promote new goods and services; give a speech to inform the local community about the organization’s future intentions. Managers and Managing 15 Levels and Skills of Managers department A group of people who work together and possess similar skills or use the same knowledge, tools, or techniques to perform their jobs. To perform the four managerial tasks ef? iently and effectively, organizations group or differentiate their managers in two main ways—by level in hierarchy and by type of skill. First, they differentiate managers according to their level or rank in the organization’s hierarchy of authority. The three levels of managers are ? rst-line managers, middle managers, and top managers—arranged in a hierarchy. Ty pically ? rst-line managers report to middle managers, and middle managers report to top managers. Second, organizations group managers into different departments (or functions) according to their speci? job-related skills, expertise, and experiences, such as a manager’s engineering skills, marketing expertise, or sales experience. A department, such as the manufacturing, accounting, engineering, or sales department, is a group of managers and employees who work together because they possess similar skills and experience or use the same kind of knowledge, tools, or techniques to perform their jobs. Within each department are all three levels of management. Next we examine why organizations use a hierarchy of managers and group them, by the jobs they perform, into departments. LO1-3 Differentiate among three levels of management, and understand the tasks and responsibilities of managers at different levels in the organizational hierarchy. Levels of Management Organizations normally have three levels of management: ? rst-line managers, middle managers, and top managers (see Figure 1. 3). Managers at each level have different but related responsibilities for using organizational resources to increase ef? ciency and effectiveness. At the base of the managerial hierarchy are ? rst-line managers, often called supervisors. They are responsible for daily supervision of the nonmanagerial employees who perform the speci? activities necessary to produce goods and services. Firstline managers work in all departments or functions of an organization. Examples of ? rst-line managers include the supervisor of a work team in the manufacturing department of a car plant, the head nurse in the obstetrics department of a hospital, and the chief mechanic overseeing a crew of mechani cs in the service ?rst-line manager A manager who is responsible for the daily supervision of nonmanagerial employees. Figure 1. 3 Levels of Managers CEO Top Managers Middle Managers First-Line Managers 16 Chapter 1 iddle manager A manager who supervises first-line managers and is responsible for finding the best way to use resources to achieve organizational goals. top manager A manager who establishes organizational goals, decides how departments should interact, and monitors the performance of middle managers. top management team A group composed of the CEO, the COO, the president, and the heads of the most important departments. function of a new car dealership. At Dell, ? rst-line managers include the supervisors responsible for controlling the quality of its computers or the level of customer service provided by telephone salespeople. When Michael Dell started his company, he personally controlled the computer assembly process and thus acted as a ? rst-line manager or supervisor. Supervising the ? rst-line managers are middle managers, responsible for ? nding the best way to organize human and other resources to achieve organizational goals. To increase ef? ciency, middle managers ? nd ways to help ? rst-line managers and nonmanagerial employees better use resources to reduce manufacturing costs or improve customer service. To increase effectiveness, middle managers evaluate whether the organization’s goals are appropriate and suggest to top managers how goals should be changed. Often the suggestions that middle managers make to top managers can dramatically increase organizational performance. A major part of the middle manager’s job is developing and ? ne-tuning skills and know-how, such as manufacturing or marketing expertise, that allow the organization to be ef? cient and effective. Middle managers make thousands of speci? c decisions about the production of goods and services: Which ? st-line supervisors should be chosen for this particular project? Where can we ? nd the highest-quality resources? How should employees be organized to allow them to make the best use of resources? Behind a ? rst-class sales force, look for the middle managers responsible for training, motivating, and rewarding the salespeople. Behind a committed staff of high school teachers, look for the principal who energizes them to ? nd ways to obtain the resources they need to do outstanding and innovative jobs in the classroom. In contrast to middle managers, top managers are responsible for the performance of all departments. 9 They have cross-departmental responsibility. Top managers establish organizational goals, such as which goods and services the company should produce; they decide how the different departments should interact; and they monitor how well middle managers in each department use resources to achieve goals. 20 Top managers are ultimately responsible for the success or failure of an organization, and their performance (like that of Michael Dell or Ursula Burns) is continually scrutinized by people inside and outside the organization, such as other employees and investors. 1 The chief executive of? cer (CEO) is a company’s most senior and important manager, the one all other top managers report to. Today the term chief operating of? cer (COO) often refers to the top manager who is being groomed to take over as CEO when the current CEO, such as Anne Mulcahy, becomes the chair of the board, retires, or leaves the company. Together the CEO and COO are responsible for developing good working relationships among the top managers of various departments (manufacturing and marketing, for example); usually these top managers have the title â€Å"vice president. A central concern of the CEO is the creation of a smoothly functioning top management team, a group composed of the CEO, the COO, and the vice presidents most responsible for achieving organizational goals. 22 The relative importance of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling—the four principal managerial tasks—to any particular manager depends on the manager’s position in the managerial hierarchy. 23 The amount of time managers spend planning and organizing resources to maintain and improve organizational performance increases as they ascend the hierarchy (see Figur e 1. ). 24 Top managers devote most of their time to planning and organizing, the tasks so crucial to determining an organization’s long-term performance. The lower that managers’ positions are in the hierarchy, the more time the managers spend leading and controlling ? rst-line managers or nonmanagerial employees. LO1-4 Distinguish between three kinds of managerial skill, and explain why managers are divided into different departments to perform their tasks more efficiently and effectively. Managerial Skills Both education and experience enable managers to recognize and develop the personal skills they need to put organizational resources to their best use. Michael Dell realized from the start that he lacked suf? cient experience and technical expertise in marketing, ? nance, and planning to guide his company alone. Thus he recruited Managers and Managing 17 Figure 1. 4 Relative Amount of Time That Managers Spend on the Four Managerial Tasks Planning Organizing Leading Controlling Top managers Middle managers First-line managers onceptual skills The ability to analyze and diagnose a situation and to distinguish between cause and effect. experienced managers from other IT companies, such as IBM and HP, to help build his company. Research has shown that education and experience help managers acquire and develop three types of skills: conceptual, human, and technical. 25 Conceptual skills are demonstrated in the general ability to analyze and diagnose a situation and to distinguish between cause and effect. Top managers require the best conceptual skills because their primary responsibilities are planning and organizing. 6 By all accounts, Steve Jobs was chosen as CEO to transform Apple, and Anne Mulcahy was chosen to revive Xerox, because of their ability to identify new opportunities and mobilize managers and other resources to take advantage of those opportunities. Formal education and training are important in helping managers develop conceptual skills. Business training at the undergraduate and graduate (MBA) levels provides many of the conceptual tools (theories and techniques in marketing, ? nance, and other areas) that managers need to perform their roles effectively. The study of management helps develop the skills that allow managers to understand the big picture confronting an organization. The ability to focus on the big picture lets managers see beyond the situation immediately at hand and consider choices while keeping in mind the organization’s long-term goals. Today continuing management education and training, including training in advanced IT, are an integral step in building managerial skills because new theories and techniques are constantly being developed to improve organizational effectiveness, such as total quality management, benchmarking, and Web-based organization and usiness-to-business (B2B) networks. A quick scan through a magazine such as BusinessWeek or Fortune reveals a host of seminars on topics such as advanced marketing, ? nance, leadership, and human resources management that are offered to managers at many levels in the organization, from the most senior corporate executives to middle managers. Microsoft, IBM, Oracle, and many other organizations designate a portion of each manager’s personal budget to be used at the manager’s discretion to attend management development programs. In addition, organizations may wish to develop a particular manager’s abilities in a speci? skill area—perhaps to learn an advanced component of departmental skills, 18 Chapter 1 human skills The ability to understand, alter, lead, and control the behavior of other individuals and groups. technical skills The job-specific knowledge and techniques required to perform an organizational role. core competency The specific set of departmental skills, knowledge, and experience that allows one organization to outperform another. such as international bond trading, or to learn the skills necessary to implement total quality management. The organization thus pays for managers to attend specialized programs to develop these skills. Indeed, one signal that a manager is performing well is an organization’s willingness to invest in that manager’s skill development. Similarly, many nonmanagerial employees who are performing at a high level (because they have studied management) are often sent to intensive management training programs to develop their management skills and to prepare them for promotion to ? rst-level management positions. Human skills include the general ability to understand, alter, lead, and control the behavior of other individuals and groups. The ability to communicate, to coordinate, and to motivate people, and to mold individuals into a cohesive team, distinguishes effective from ineffective managers. By all accounts, Steve Jobs, Anne Mulcahy, and Michael Dell all possess a high level of these human skills. Like conceptual skills, human skills can be learned through education and training, as well as be developed through experience. 27 Organizations increasingly utilize advanced programs in leadership skills and team leadership as they seek to capitalize on the advantages of self-managed teams. 8 To manage personal interactions effectively, each person in an organization needs to learn how to empathize with other people—to understand their viewpoints and the problems they face. One way to help managers understand their personal strengths and weaknesses is to have their superiors, peers, and subordinates provide feedback about their job performance. Thorough and direct feedback allows managers to develop their hum an skills. Technical skills are the job-speci? c skills required to perform a particular type of work or occupation at a high level. Examples include a manager’s speci? manufacturing, accounting, marketing, and increasingly, IT skills. Managers need a range of technical skills to be effective. The array of technical skills managers need depends on their position in their organizations. The manager of a restaurant, for example, may need cooking skills to ? ll in for an absent cook, accounting and bookkeeping skills to keep track of receipts and costs and to administer the payroll, and aesthetic skills to keep the restaurant looking attractive for customers. As noted earlier, managers and employees who possess the same kinds of technical skills typically become members of a speci? department and are known as, for example, marketing managers or manufacturing managers. 29 Managers are grouped into different departments because a major part of a manager’s responsibility is to monitor, train, and supervise employees so their job-speci? c skills and expertise increase. Obviously this is easier to do when employees with similar skills are grouped into the same department because they can learn from one another and become more skilled and productive at their particular jobs. Figure 1. 5 shows how an organization groups managers into departments on the basis of their job-speci? skills. It also shows that inside each department, a managerial hierarchy of ? rst-line, middle, and top managers emerges. At Dell, for example, Michael Dell hired experienced top managers to take charge of the marketing, sales, and manufacturing departments and to develop work procedures to help middle and ? rst-line managers control the company’s explosive sales growth. When the head of manufacturing found he had no time to supervise computer assembly, he recruited experienced manufacturing middle managers from other companies to assume this responsibility. At Xerox, Anne Mulcahy nurtured many of her managers to develop the required functional skills, such as Ursula Burns, who used her engineering expertise to rise to become CEO. Today the term core competency is often used to refer to the speci? c set of departmental skills, knowledge, and experience that allows one organization to outperform its competitors. In other words, departmental skills that create a core competency give an organization a competitive advantage. Dell, for example, was the ? st PC maker to develop a core competency in materials management that allowed it to produce PCs at a much lower cost than its competitors—a major source of competitive advantage. Similarly, 3M is well known for its core competency in research and development (RD) that allows it to innovate new products at a faster rate than its competitors, and Xerox has been working to develop a competency to provide a fullrange service that is customized to the needs of each of the companies it serve s. Managers and Managing 19 Figure 1. 5 Types and Levels of Managers CEO Top Managers Middle Managers First-Line Managers Research and development department Marketing and sales department Manufacturing department Accounting department Materials management department Effective managers need all three kinds of skills—conceptual, human, and technical— to help their organizations perform more ef? ciently and effectively. The absence of even one type of managerial skill can lead to failure. One of the biggest problems that people who start small businesses confront, for example, is their lack of appropriate conceptual and human skills. Someone who has the technical skills to start a new business does not necessarily know how to manage the venture successfully. Similarly, one of the biggest problems that scientists or engineers who switch careers from research to management confront is their lack of effective human skills. Ambitious managers or prospective managers are constantly in search of the latest educational contributions to help them develop the conceptual, human, and technical skills they need to perform at a high level in today’s changing and increasingly competitive global environment. Developing new and improved skills through education and training has become a priority for both aspiring managers and the organizations they work for. As we discussed earlier, many people are enrolling in advanced management courses; but many companies, such as Microsoft, GE, and IBM, have established their own colleges to train and develop their employees and managers at all levels. Every year these companies put thousands of their employees through management programs designed to identify the employees who the company believes have the competencies that can be developed to become its future top managers. Most organizations closely link promotion to a manager’s ability to acquire the competencies that a particular company believes are important. 30 At Apple and 3M, for example, the ability to successfully lead a new product development team is viewed as a vital requirement for promotion; at Accenture and IBM, the ability to attract and retain clients is viewed as a skill its consultants must possess. We discuss the various kinds of skills managers need to develop in most of the chapters of this book. 20 Chapter 1 Recent Changes in Management Practices The tasks and responsibilities of managers have been changing dramatically in recent years. Two major factors that have led to these changes are global competition and advances in information technology (IT). Stiff competition for resources from organizations both at home and abroad has put increased pressure on all managers to improve ef? ciency and effectiveness. Increasingly, top managers are encouraging lower-level managers to look beyond the goals of their own departments and take a cross-departmental view to ? nd new opportunities to improve organizational performance, as Steve Jobs and Anne Mulcahy did. Modern IT gives managers at all levels and in all areas access to more and better information and improves their ability to plan, organize, lead, and control. IT also gives employees more job-related information and allows them to become more skilled, specialized, and productive. 31 Restructuring and Outsourcing To utilize IT to increase ef? ciency and effectiveness, CEOs and top management teams have been restructuring organizations and outsourcing speci? c organizational activities to reduce the number of employees on the payroll and make more productive use of the remaining workforce. Restructuring involves simplifying, shrinking, or downsizing an organization’s operations to lower operating costs, as both Dell and Xerox have been forced to do. The ? nancial crisis that started in 2009 has forced most companies—large and small, and pro? t and nonpro? t—to ? nd ways to reduce costs because their customers are spending less money, so their revenues decrease. Restructuring can be done by eliminating product teams, shrinking departments, and reducing levels in the hierarchy, all of which result in the loss of large numbers of jobs of top, middle, or ? st-line managers, as well as nonmanagerial employees. Modern IT’s ability to improve ef? ciency has increased the amount of downsizing in recent years because IT makes it possible for fewer employees to perform a given task. IT increases each person’s ability to process information and make decisions more quickly and accurately, for example. U. S. companies are spending over $100 billio n a year to purchase advanced IT that can improve ef? ciency and effectiveness. We discuss the many dramatic effects of IT on management in Chapter 18 and throughout this book. Restructuring, however, can produce some powerful negative outcomes. It can reduce the morale of remaining employees, who worry about their own job security— something Anne Mulcahy had to deal with at Xerox. And top managers of many downsized organizations realize that they downsized too far when their employees complain they are overworked and when increasing numbers o How to cite CHAPTER 1 Managers and Managing Learning Objectives, Essay examples